The practice of charging interest on loans led people to lose their land and sometimes to be forced into debt bondage:
“If a man is in debt and cannot pay, he may give his wife, son or daughter as servants for three years; in the fourth year they shall be set free.” (The Code of Hammurabi, around 1750 BCE)
This created major tensions in society. To prevent uprisings, kings could proclaim debt cancellations. Those who had become enslaved could then be freed, and those who had lost their land could get it back.
800 BCE–600 CE – Religion, philosophy and the morality of debt
This was a period when several influential religions and philosophical traditions emerged or were reshaped, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Greek philosophy, Judaism and Christianity. Many religious traditions criticised lending money at interest, for example in the Bible and the Qur’an. Debt came to be linked to morality and sin – for example in the prayer “forgive us our debts”.
600–1450 – The Middle Ages: debt, feudalism and religious rules
In Europe, the Church long prohibited interest. But people found other ways to charge for lending money. Jewish minorities were often assigned the role of moneylenders – which contributed to hatred, stigmatization and persecution. In China there were developed systems of loans and credit. Interest was generally not prohibited, but it was regulated by the state to prevent debts from becoming socially dangerous. In India, lending and repayment were linked to questions of duty, morality and karma. Both the duty to lend and the duty to repay could be seen as more than an economic transaction in this life. Within Islam, forms of financing developed in which interest was not to be charged.
1450–1971 – Empires of debt: colonialism and capitalism
European empires conquered the world with the help of loans.African, Asian and Latin American countries were forced to pay colonial powers for their own “freedom”. Haiti, for example, was forced to pay billions to France for “lost property” – meaning the enslaved people. The debt took more than 100 years to pay.
The modern bank was born; interest, debt and investment became an engine of the capitalist economy.
Enslaved people, factory workers and colonized peoples became part of a global debt structure in which the profits from their labor helped pay the debts of states and companies, while they themselves lost land, opportunities for self-sufficiency and the ability to govern their own lives.
1971–2026: Virtual money, credit cards and financial crises
In 1971 the United States stopped backing the dollar with gold. Money was thereby completely disconnected from the gold reserve, and the global financial system increasingly came to be built on credit and debt. The IMF and the World Bank pressured many poor countries to cut spending on schools, healthcare and food subsidies in order to pay debts, even when the loans had been taken out by dictators.
At the same time, the role of welfare states changed. Where the state had previously taken greater responsibility for people’s housing, education, health and economic security, individuals and households now had to carry more of the risks themselves. Debts were thereby shifted from states to individuals through credit cards, mortgages and other private loans.
In Sweden, interest rates and credit markets were deregulated, and lenders’ responsibility for preventing over-indebtedness was weakened. Internationally, the 2008 financial crisis showed how banks that had speculated in people’s debts were rescued with taxpayers’ money when the system collapsed.
